Mesoamerican chronology
The Preclassic Era or the Formative Period saw the rise of large-scale ceremonial architecture, writing, cities, and states. Many of the key elements of Mesoamerican civilization can be traced back to this period, including the dominance of corn, the building of pyramids, human sacrifice, jaguar-worship, the complex calendar, and many of the gods.
During this period, the Olmec civilization developed and flourished at such sites as La Venta and San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, the Zapotec arose in the Valley of Oaxaca, the Teotihuacan civilization arose in the Valley of Mexico, and the Maya civilization began in modern-day Guatemala and expanded into the Yucatan Peninsula. Important early Maya cities include Kaminaljuyu, El Mirador, Nakbe, San Bartolo, Cival and Takalik Abaj.
The Classic Era was dominated by numerous independent city-states in the Maya region and also featured the beginnings of political unity in central Mexico and the Yucatán. The city-state of Teotihuacan dominated the Valley of Mexico until the early eight century, but we know little of the political structure of the region because the Teotihuacaners left no written records. The city-state of Monte Albán dominated the Valley of Oaxaca until the late Classic, leaving limited records in their mostly undeciphered script.
In the Maya region, numerous city states such as Tikal, Calakmul, Copán, Palenque, Uxmal, Cobá, and Caracol reached their zeniths. Each of these polities was generally independent, although they often formed alliances and sometimes became vassal states of each other. The main conflict during this period was between Tikal and Calakmul, who fought a series of wars over the course of more than half a millennium. Each of these states declined during the Terminal Classic and were eventually abandoned.
In the early 20th century, the term "Old Empire" was sometimes given to this era of Maya civilization in an analogy to Ancient Egypt; the term is now considered inaccurate and has long been out of use by serious writers on the subject.
The Postclassic is often viewed as a period of cultural decline. However, it was a time of technological advancement in areas of architecture, engineering and weaponry. Metallurgy (introduced c.800 ad) came into use for jewellry and some tools, with new alloys and techniques being developed in a few centuries. The Postclassic saw rapid movement and growth of population - especially in Central Mexico post-1200 AD. It was also a time of experimentation in governance. For instance, in Yucatan, 'dual rulership' apparently replaced the more theocratic governments of Classic times, whilst oligarchic councils now operated in much of Central Mexico. Likewise, it appears that the wealthy pochteca (merchant class) and military orders became more powerful than was apparently the case in Classic times. This afforded some Mesomaericans a degree of social mobility.
The Toltec for a time dominated central Mexico in the 11th – 13th century, then collapsed. The northern Maya were for a time united under Mayapan. Equally, Oaxaca was briefly united by Mixtec rulers in the 11th - 12th centuries.
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From the 8th to 18th centuries, glazed ceramics was important in Islamic art, usually in the form of elaborate pottery, developing on vigorous Persian and Egyptian pre-Islamic traditions in particular. Tin-opacified glazing was developed by the Islamic potters, the first examples found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating from about the 8th century.
Ceramic art has generated many styles from its own tradition, but is often closely related to contemporary sculpture and metalwork. Many times in its history styles from the usually more prestigious and expensive art of metalworking have been copied in ceramics.
The Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), founded by the peasant rebel leader Liu Bang (known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu), was the second imperial dynasty of China. It followed the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE), which had unified the Warring States of China by conquest.
Warwick landed in the West Country on 13 September 1470, accompanied by Clarence and some unswerving Lancastrian nobles, including the Earl of Oxford and Jasper Tudor, the Earl of Pembroke. As Edward made his way south to face Warwick, he realised that Warwick's brother John, Marquess of Montagu, who had up till then remained loyal to Edward, had defected at the head of a large army in the North of England.
Edward IV owed his victory in large measure to the support of his cousin, the powerful Earl of Warwick. They became estranged when Edward spurned the French diplomatic marriage that Warwick was seeking for him. Edward instead married Elizabeth Woodville, widow of an obscure Lancastrian gentleman, in secret in 1464. W
After Menferre Ay fled his palace in at the end of the 13th dynasty, a Canaanite tribe called the Hyksos sacked Memphis (the Egyptians capital city) and claimed dominion over Upper and Lower Egypt. After the Hyksos took control, many Egyptians fled to Thebes, where they eventually began to oppose the Hyksos rule.
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The most difficult mission in the world is to make certain that your children are kept occupied with either after school activities or activity books for children in the home. Because of the summer break looming parents might want to have a few activity proposals up their sleeve in an effort to provide themselves with some respite from their over-active kids.
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The Kingdom of England was, from 927 to 1707, a sovereign state to the northwest of continental Europe. At its height, the Kingdom of England spanned the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain (including both modern-day England and Wales) and several smaller outlying islands; what today comprises the legal jurisdiction of England and Wales.
The first phase of conflict was between 1455–1460. The Yorkists were victorious at the First Battle of St Albans and attempts were made to reconcile differences. Margaret resisted attempts to have her son Edward of Westminster disinherited, and Richard was forced to return to Ireland as a lieutenant.
Prior to Henry IV taking the throne and becoming the first Lancastrian king, Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March was the actual heir presumptive to Richard II, through his deceased grandmother Philippa, according to cognatic primogeniture. Phillipa was the only child of Lionel, Duke of Clarence.
The right of succession to the House of Capet was disputed. Philip IV of France had three sons, all of whom died without having produced male issue, aside from Louis whose son, John, lived for only five days. In feudal law, Philip IV's daughter and sole remaining child Isabella of France (mother of Edward III of England) had claim to the French throne, and the seniority of the House of Capet.
Henry III became king at just nine years old, so nobles such as William Marshal and Hubert de Burgh dominated the early years of his reign. Henry made unsuccessful attempts to regain Plantagenet land in northern France. He handed out various honours to foreigners related to his wife, Eleanor of Provence, which aggravated the local nobility.
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