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Computing technology has designed a perpetual modification in the style of professional exertion circuitously of the world. Information that was at one time emporium in storehouse safeguarding management can now be entranced without delay at the small noise of mouse identification. Instruction placed by customers in foreign countries can now be forthwith prepared on the bottom surface of any room of a fabrication facility. Although 15 years ago much of this information had been enchanted onto corporate mainframe databases, offices still worked in a batch-processing environment. If a query is needed to be accomplished, someone may apprise the management information systems department; the requested data are delivered as soon as possible nevertheless often not speedy and sufficient in normal manner.
In summing up to the outgrowth of the relational database archetype, two technologies led to the rapid growth of what are now called client/server database assemblage. The important momentous technology was the personal computer. Reasonable, easy-to-use applications such as Spreadsheet and Word Perfect enabled employees to create documents and accomplish data dashing and decently. The people, who are chain used to consecutively modernising systems, as the rate of modification was so expeditious, even as the price of the more highly evolved systems protracted to decline. The next substantial technology was the local area network (LAN) and its solidarity into offices across the world. Although users our established to end connections to a corporate mainframe, now word processing files could be stored locally within an office and accessed from any computer attached to the network. After the Apple Macintosh introduced a friendly graphical user interface, computers our not only economical and powerful but also easy to use. In addition, they could be accessed from remote sites, and large amounts of data could be off-loaded to departmental data servers.
In the course of rapid change and betterment, a new sort of system has appeared known as client/server development because processing is split between client computers and a database server; this new breed of application was a radical change from mainframe-based application programming. Among the many advantages of this type of the system are:
•Simplified supporting costs
•Uncomplicated network load (processing occurs on database server or client computer)
•Manifold functioning systems that can inordinate as long as they share a common network etiquette
•Improved data integrity owing to centralized data location
In developing Client/Server Computing, Bernard H. Boar defines client/server computing as follows:
"Client/server computing is a processing model in which a single application is partitioned between multiple processors (front-end and back-end) and the processors cooperate (transparent to the end user) to complete the processing as a single unified task. Implementing Client/Server Computing a client/server bond product ties the processors together to provide a single system image (illusion). Shareable resources are positioned as requestor clients that access authorized services. The architecture is endlessly recursive; in turn, servers can become clients and request services of other servers on the network, and so on and so on. "This type of application development requires an entirely new set of programming skills. User interface programming is now written for graphical user interfaces, whether it is MS Windows, IBM OS/2, Apple Macintosh, or the UNIX X-Window system. Using STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE and a network connection, the application can interface to a database residing on a remote server. The increased power of personal computer hardware enables critical database information to be stored on a relatively inexpensive standalone server. In addition, this server can be replaced later with little or no change to the client applications. We can apply the basic concepts introduced in this book in many environments--for example, Microsoft Access running on a single-user Windows application or STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE Server running with 100 user connections. One of STRUCTURED QUERY Language’s greatest benefits is that it is truly a cross-platform language and a cross-product language. Because it is also what programmers refer to as a high-level or fourth-generation language (4GL), a large amount of work can be done higher-level language 4GL (fourth-generation) language fourth-generation (4GL) language in fewer lines of code.
Oracle Corporation unconstrained the first mercantile RDBMS that promulgated STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE. Although the original versions our developed for VAX/VMS systems, Oracle was one of the first vendors to release a DOS version of its RDBMS. (Oracle is now available on more than 70 platforms.) In the mid-1980s Sybase released its RDBMS, STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE Server. With client libraries for database access, support for stored procedures (discussed on Day 14, "Self-motivated Uses of STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE"), and interoperability with various networks, STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE Server became a successful product, particularly in client/server environments. One of the strongest points for both of these STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE Server powerful database systems is their scalability across platforms. C language code (combined with STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE) written for Oracle on a PC is virtually identical to its counterpart written for an Oracle database running on a VAX system.
STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE and Client/Server Application Development
The common thread that runs throughout client/server application development is the use client/server computing of STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE and relational databases. Also, using this database technology in a single-user business application positions the application for future growth.
An Overview of STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE
STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE is the de facto standard language used to manipulate and retrieve data from these relational databases. STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE enables a programmer or database administrator to do the following:
•Modify a database's structure
•Change system security settings
•Add user permissions on databases or tables
•Query a database for information
•Update the contents of a database
NOTE: The term STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE can be confusing. The S, for Structured, and the L, for Language, is straightforward enough, but the Q is a little misleading. Q, of course, stands for "Query," which--if taken literally--would restrict we to asking the database questions. But STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE does much more than asks questions. With STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE we can also create tables, add data, delete data, splice data together, trigger actions based on changes to the database, and store our queries within our program or database.
Unfortunately, there is no good substitute for Query. Obviously, Structured Add Modify Delete Join Store Trigger and Query Language (SAMDJSTQL) are a bit burdensome. In the interest of agreement, we will stay with STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE. However, we now know that its function is larger than its name.
The most commonly used statement in STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE is the SELECT statement that retrieves data from the database and returns the data to the user. The EMPLOYEE table example illustrates a typical illustration of a SELECT statement situation. In addition to the SELECT statement, STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE provides statements for creating new databases, tables, fields, and indexes, as well as statements for inserting and deleting records. ANSI STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE also recommends a core group of data manipulation functions. As we will find out, many database systems also have tools for ensuring data integrity and enforcing security (see Day 11, "Controlling Transactions") that enable programmers to stop the execution of a group of commands if a certain condition occurs.
Popular STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE Implementations
This section introduces some of the more popular implementations of STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE, each of which has its own strengths and weaknesses. Where some implementations of STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE have been developed for PC use and easy user interactivity, others have been developed to accommodate very large databases (VLDB). This section introduces selected key features of some implementations.
Microsoft Access
We use Microsoft Access, a PC-based DBMS, to illustrate some of the examples in this text. Access is very easy to use. We can use GUI tools or manually enter our STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE statements.
Personal Oracle7
We use Personal Oracle7, which represents the larger corporate database world, to demonstrate command-line STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE and database management techniques. (These techniques are important because the days of the standalone machine are drawing to an end, as are the days when knowing one database or one operating system was enough. This tool then returns data to the screen for the user to see, or it performs the appropriate action on the database.
Most examples are directed toward the beginning programmer or first-time user of STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE. We begin with the simplest of STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE statements and advance to the topics of transaction management and stored procedure programming. The Oracle RDBMS is distributed with a full complement of development tools. It includes a C++ and Visual Basic language library (Oracle Objects for OLE) that can link an application to a Personal Oracle database. It also comes with graphical tools for database, user, and object administration, as well as the STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE Loader utility, which is used to import and export data to and from Oracle.
We select the Personal Oracle7 RDBMS for several reasons that are vitally important for creating object oriented database customised software
•It includes nearly all the tools needed to demonstrate the topics discussed in this book.
•It is available on virtually every platform in use today and is one of the most popular RDBMS products worldwide.
•A 90-day trial copy can be downloaded from Oracle Corporation's World Wide Web server.
Microsoft Query is a useful query tool that comes packaged with Microsoft's Windows development tools, Visual C++, and Visual Basic. It uses the ODBC standard to communicate with underlying databases. Microsoft Query passes STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE statements to a driver, which processes the statements before passing them to a database system. ODBC is a functional library designed to provide a common Application Programming Interface (API) to underlying database systems. It communicates with the database through a library driver, just as Windows communicates with a printer via a printer driver. Depending on the database being used, a networking driver may be required to connect to a remote database.
The unique feature of ODBC as compared to the Oracle or Sybase libraries is that none of its functions are database-vendor specific. For instance, we can use the same code to perform queries against a Microsoft Access table or an Informix database with little or no modification. Once again, it should be noted that most vendors add some proprietary extensions to the STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE standard, such as Microsoft's and Sybase's Transact-STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE and Oracle's PL/STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE. We should always consult the documentation before beginning to work with a new data source. ODBC has developed into a standard adopted into many products, including Visual Basic, Visual C++, FoxPro, Borland Delphi, and Power Builder. As always, application developers need to meditate on the advantage of using the emerging ODBC standard, which enables we to design code without regard for a specific database, versus the speed gained by using a database specific function library. In other words, using ODBC will be more portable but slower than using the Oracle7 or Sybase libraries.
STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE in Application Programming including Object linking and embedding
STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE was in the beginning created an ANSI criterion in 1986. The ANSI 1989 standard (often called STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE-89) defines three types of interfacing to STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE within an application program:
•Module Language-- Uses procedures within programs. These procedures can be called by the application program and can return values to the program via parameter passing.
•Embedded STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE--Uses STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE statements embedded with actual program code. This method often requires the use of a precompiled to process the STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE statements. The standard defines statements for Pascal, FORTRAN, COBOL, and PL/1.
•Direct Invocation--Left up to the implementers.
Before the concept of dynamic STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE evolved, embedded STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE was the most popular way to use STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE within a program. Embedded STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE, which is still used, uses static STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE--meaning that the STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE statement is compiled into the application and cannot be changed at runtime. The principle is much the same as a compiler versus an interpreter. The performance for this type of STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE is good; however, it is not flexible--and cannot always meet the needs of today's changing business environments. Dynamic STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE is discussed shortly.
The ANSI 1992 standard (STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE-92) extended the language and became an international standard. It defines three levels of STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE compliance: entry, intermediate, and full. The new features introduced include the following:
•Connections to databases
•Scrollable cursors
•Dynamic STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE
This obsession covers not only all these extensions but also some proprietary extensions used by RDBMS vendors. Dynamic STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE allows we to prepare the STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE statement at runtime. Although the performance for this type of STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE is not as good as that of embedded STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE, it provides the application developer (and user) with a great degree of flexibility. A call-level interface, such as ODBC or Sybase's DB-Library, is an example of dynamic STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE. Call-level interfaces should not be a new concept to application programmers. When using ODBC, for instance, we simply fill a variable with our STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE statement and call the function to send the STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE statement to the database. Errors or results can be returned to the program through the use of other function calls designed for those purposes. Results are returned through a process known as the binding of variables.
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