The Era of the American Revolution

Beginning with the Proclamation of 1763, British interference commenced and signaled the end of salutary neglect in the colonies; British taxation fertilized the seeds of unrest in the colonies, leading to increased tension, which initiated the Revolutionary War and culminated with the transition from a Confederation to a Federal Union.

In a public address, Charles Gravier expressed the following sentiment: “The American colonies stand no longer in need of England’s protection. England will call on them to help contribute toward supporting the burden that have helped bring on her, and they will answer by striking of f all dependence.” The Proclamation of 1763 again expressed Britain’s interference by limiting settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. Britain, realizing her enormous debt from the French and Indian war, concocted a variety of taxes to extract funds from the colonists to replenish her empty coffers. The Sugar Act of 1764 imposed an import tax on sugar and molasses. The Stamp Act of 1765 taxed advertisements, diplomas, legal documents, newspapers, and even playing cards. Committees of artisans, lawyers, merchants, and politicians called the “Sons of Liberty”, led by Samuel Adams, protested these tariffs. Britain, however, would not relent with her taxes. The Declaratory Act of 1766 soon followed and reiterated that Parliament had full power to make laws and bind the colonies in all cases. The Townshend Acts of 1767 imposed import duties on tea, lead, glass, and dyes for paint. British customs officials were given the right to use search warrants called “writs of assistance” to search any vessel, warehouse, or home to enforce the Townshend Acts and recover any smuggled goods. Colonists responded to these outrages by refusing to house and supply troops as ordered by the Quartering Act of 1765. Mounting unrest soon exploded with violence on March 5th, 1770. Colonists faced the troops and accompanied yells of anger with rocks, coal, and oyster shells. The troops fired on the raging colonists, resulting in five deaths of the colonists; this incident became known as the “Boston Massacre.” Although part of the Townshend Acts were repealed and the Quartering Act expired, King George III continued to tax tea as a reminder that Britain still had the right to tax the colonies. Again, colonial anger was fueled by the Tea Act of 1773, which excused the British East India Company from paying certain tariffs. Colonists responded to these acts by refusing to buy tea from the East India Company. The boycott led to a heated protest resulting in the dumping of 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor. The encounter became known as “The Boston Tea Party.” Britain, enraged by this act against their decision, passed what colonists called the “Intolerable Acts.” The Intolerable Acts were designed to punish Boston and again strengthen British control.

Colonists, in their anger, found themselves searching for a new beginning, or identity, independent of British rule. In 1774, the First Continental Congress, composed of delegates from each colony, called for a ban on all trade with Britain. Therefore, the words of John Adams rang true, “The Revolution was in effect before the war commenced. It was in the hearts and minds of the people.” In 1775, the first battle ensued at Lexington between the British and the “minutemen”, a small militia of men ready to fight on a minute’s notice. After inflicting 18 casualties, the British marched to Concord to battle colonial farmers. The following year, involved one battle, with ample time for regrouping. Colonists were divided between those seeking independence, known as the patriots, and the loyalists, those in favor of remaining loyal to Britain. Following the Battle of Concord, the Second Continental Congress convened to form an army, print money, and create government offices to oversee policy. George Washington was chosen to lead the army because he was well liked and was a southerner. In June 1776, Thomas Jefferson was selected to chair the committee and to write the Declaration of Independence, listing the grievances against Britain and stating the idea of individual liberty and government’s responsibility to serve the people. With the Declaration’s signing of July 4th, 1776, the Revolutionary War officially commenced. The idea of freedom and independence stirred the emotions of various groups. Women, such as Abigail Adams, wanted input in government. Since no central government was in existence, businesses and merchants could not be forced to participate in the war effort. Goods were sold to the highest bidder, and this often was Britain. Meanwhile, many soldier’s in Washington’s regime at Valley Forge suffered from lack of food and proper clothing. In 1776, Washington and his men crossed the icy Delaware River to surprise the British at Trenton. They won the surprise attack and slipped back into the night undetected. Again in October 1777, at the Battle of Saratoga, the patriots conquered the British and forced the surrender of General Johnny Burgoyne. This battle proved to be a significant turning point for the patriots as France then recognized the United State’s independence and provided hold, naval support, troops, and supplies. The war drew to an end on October 1781, as British General Cornwallis succumbed to defeat by American and French troops at Yorktown, Virginia. The treaty of Paris was signed on September 3rd 1783, granting the United States independence and land from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River and from the Great Lakes to Florida. It granted fishing rights to the United States in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and off the Newfoundland coast. The treaty also stated the United States must compensate Britain for any debts owed. Finally, the United States could now forge their own set of laws for governing their colonies.

The American Revolution ended the British rule in America and forced British governors out of office. It was time for the colonies “under the rule of the people” to form a new type of government. The failures of the previous system in England were addressed by the molders of the new government. For example, in the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom the idea that the human mind was free and that any governmental control was tyranny was put forward. With the idea of limited government, a congressional committee presented the Articles of Confederation to the former colonies. The framers of the plan for the confederation were cautious in the architecture of it, having seen the effects of an overly powerful government in Britain. The Articles, therefore, created a confederation of states, but guaranteed each state its “sovereignty, freedom, and independence.” The new congress resolved issues and disputes between the States, such as the Land Ordinance of 1785, to regulate Western Lands and the Land Ordinance of 1787, which established a system of government in the Northeastern territory. Despite the apparent success of the Articles of Confederation in the creation of a national government, it was weak in its design. Changes to the Articles needed approval from all of the thirteen states before taking effect. Additionally, do to the fear of federal taxation as in England; Congress could not tax the people directly. Congress tried to compensate for this fact by printing more money. Because the “Continentals” were not backed by precious metals, such as gold or silver, merchants refused to accept them at face value. This resulted in a depression in the Confederation. Many people, such as farmers in Massachusetts, gad their farms and lands foreclosed on. In response to this, farmers shut down debtors’ courts and stopped property auctions in what would be called Shays’s Rebellion. These disturbances raised questions about the Confederation’s weaknesses. Finally, many began to call for a government with more federal power. In response to this, a Constitutional Convention was called. The original purpose of this Convention was merely to revise the Articles of Confederation. However, James Madison asserted that a division of powers between a strong central government and state governments was necessary. His plan called for a bicameral, composed of two houses, legislature with popular vote determining the lower house, which would then select the upper house. Due to population differences, some states rejected this plan immediately. Finally, Roger Sherman proposed a compromise known as the Great Compromise. In it, each state was granted an equal vote in the upper house, with population still determining the lower house. Then, the issue of slavery arose when delegates debated whether slaves should be included in the population count. After much debate, another compromise was reached, the Three-Fifths Compromise. In the Three-Fifths Compromise only three-fifths of the slave population would count in determining its representation. With this, and a few other compromises, the new product, the Constitution, began the process of ratification. The Constitution was based on the idea of Separation of Powers, with an executive, judicial, and legislative branch. These branches could check, or override, the other if certain conditions were met. In 1790, ratification of the Constitution was completed and a federal government was finally established in the United States of America.

Early colonists risked their own lives to come to an unknown land for freedom. Their arrival demanded expansion and the development of laws that supported their needs in a new country. Though escaping oppression from Britain, many colonists felt the power of the Crown controlling their lives even in this new land. Resentment grew as colonies, developing into thriving towns, encountered burdensome taxation on necessities. This growing resentment led to outbursts of violence which led Britain to inflict even more stringent taxation policies. The outcry grew, and independence was declared. The cost of freedom and independence from Britain was bought with courageous lives of patriots in the Revolutionary war. The result was the formation of a new body of United States which drafted their own guidelines for right and freedoms along with the role of government in their lives.